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Offences Against Unborn and Newborn Child under BNS, 2023

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Introduction It is a natural law that a person who is born must die one day. However, an act that intentionally leads to the death of an unborn or newborn child is a serious criminal offence. Such acts are not only legally punishable but also morally unacceptable. One of the major reasons behind such offences, especially in India, has been the preference for a male child. It is often believed that a male child will take care of parents in old age. This leads to the harsh reality where, despite worshipping goddesses, female children are sometimes killed before or immediately after birth. Offences Against Newborn and Unborn Children Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, provisions relating to unborn and newborn children are largely derived from earlier IPC Sections 312–318. These offences include: ● Causing miscarriage ● Miscarriage without consent ● Death caused by miscarriage ● Injury to unborn child ● Exposure and abandonment of infant ● Concealment of birth 1. Causing Miscarriage ...
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Kidnapping and Abduction under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Meaning, Essentials, Differences and Punishment

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Introduction Kidnapping refers to the act of taking away a person, especially a minor, without lawful consent. It is a serious offence affecting personal liberty. Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, provisions relating to kidnapping have been updated while retaining the core principles of the earlier Indian Penal Code, 1860. Meaning of Kidnapping Kidnapping is of two types: ● Kidnapping from India ● Kidnapping from lawful guardianship Kidnapping from Lawful Guardianship It means taking or enticing a minor or a person of unsound mind out of the keeping of a lawful guardian without consent. Essentials of Kidnapping ● The person must be a minor or of unsound mind ● The person must be taken away from lawful guardian ● The act must be without consent of the guardian ● Consent of minor is irrelevant Punishment for Kidnapping Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: ● Imprisonment up to 7 years ● Fine may also be imposed Meaning of Abduction Abduction means compelling or inducing any per...
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Theories of Punishment in Criminology

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Introduction Punishment is the immediate consequence that follows a criminal act. It is imposed by the competent authority as a response to wrongdoing. In simple terms, punishment refers to the suffering, loss, or penalty inflicted on a person because of a crime committed. In the study of Criminology, punishment plays an important role in maintaining social order and preventing criminal behaviour. Over time, scholars have developed different theories to explain the purpose and function of punishment. Meaning of Punishment Punishment can be defined as a legal penalty imposed by the state on a person who has committed a crime. The primary objective of punishment is to maintain law and order in society and discourage individuals from committing offences. Different philosophers and jurists have proposed various explanations regarding why punishment is necessary and how it should be applied. Theories of Punishment The major theories of punishment are: 1. Deterrent Theory 2. Preventive Theor...
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Definitions, Concepts of Crime, Causes of Crime and Prevention of Crime

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Introduction Crime is a social phenomenon that exists in every society. With the development of organized societies and legal systems, certain acts came to be recognized as crimes. Crime not only affects individuals but also disturbs the social order of society. Understanding the concept, causes, and prevention of crime is essential for maintaining law and order. Crime in Primitive Society In primitive societies, there was no organized state or king. Social control was informal and mainly based on customs, traditions, and group norms. Any act that violated these customs was considered wrong and was punished by the community. Natural Rights Theory The concept of natural rights was given by John Locke. According to him, every individual is born with certain natural rights. These rights include: 1. Right to life 2. Right to liberty 3. Right to property Violation of these rights later became the basis for defining crimes in organized societies. Early Laws – Code of Hammurabi One of the ear...
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Footprints (Shoe Impressions) in Forensic Science

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Introduction One cannot walk without leaving footprints or footwear impressions. Footprints are marks left through direct physical contact with the surface on which a person walks. These impressions may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional and represent the sole of the foot or footwear. They accurately reflect the design, size, and unique characteristics of footwear and therefore play a crucial role in forensic identification. Footprints are valuable forensic evidence, especially in crimes where proof of an individual's presence at the scene is incriminating. Information Provided by Footprints Footprints help investigators determine: 1. Number of suspects involved 2. Path taken through the scene 3. Involvement in the crime 4. Shoe type and size estimation 6. Point of entry or exit, often leading to other evidence Importance of Footwear Impressions Footwear impressions provide valuable information at the crime scene: 1. Identification of Footwear A specific item of footwear can b...
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Cooperative Movement in India: Meaning, Objectives, Characteristics and Causes

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Introduction The cooperative movement in India refers to the voluntary association of individuals who come together to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise. Cooperative societies play a crucial role in India’s development, particularly in agriculture, banking, and housing sectors. These societies mainly help poor, illiterate, and unskilled people by providing financial and social support. The cooperative movement has strengthened rural communities and increased participation in economic activities. It has also contributed to improving living standards and promoting democratic values in society. Objectives of Cooperative Societies The main objectives of cooperative societies are: 1. To sell products and services efficiently. 2. To eliminate the unnecessary profits of middlemen in trade and commerce. 3. To prevent exploitation of weaker sections of society. 4. To protect the rights of both producers and co...
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Classification of Physical Evidence in Forensic Science: Types and Examples

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Introduction Physical evidence plays a crucial role in criminal investigations. It provides objective information that helps investigators reconstruct events, identify suspects, and establish links between the victim, the suspect, and the crime scene. Proper classification of physical evidence is essential for effective collection, analysis, and interpretation in forensic science. Definition of Physical Evidence Physical evidence refers to any object, substance, or material that provides information relevant to a criminal investigation and can be scientifically tested to determine its origin or connection to a crime. It forms a vital bridge between the victim, the suspect, and the scene of crime. Purpose of Collection of Physical Evidence The main purpose of collecting physical evidence is to establish connections among the victim, suspect, and crime scene. Physical evidence helps investigators: ● Reconstruct the sequence of events ● Identify or eliminate suspects ● Support or refute w...
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